Contemporary Essay Topics - Overview

Contemporary Essay Topics - Overview If Development isn't engendered, it's endangered 10. Studies have revealed that the level of change in racial values is dependent on where and what sort of community one grew up in. Many federal agencies have limited authority, as an example, the Food and Drug Administration can't directly tests products. A trusted writing services company may assist you with all that. Performance art is now a favorite type of contemporary art in late years. For example, if you go into a cyber cafe, there's screening method to identify why users wish to browse. This is a great practice for your communication and research abilities. This form of contemporary art doesn't carry any aesthetic price, it's not going to fit into your interiorit simply exists. The hair fall might also be brought on by conditions like discoid lupus or lichen planus. Nonetheless, not all poets throughout that time frame will write in that special style. On the flip side, contemporary can be regarded as a manner of poetry written today. In fact, a seasoned writer can get the job done much faster than any student as they've been writing academic assignments during their entire life. Today, most college students find it difficult to compose an essay on a specific topic. It is possible to easily buy unique college essays and don't neglect to tell friends and family about it. An argumentative essay is a sort of academic papers that students write in the center school. Being a real paragraph alone and the very first, it's virtually the most crucial paragraph of a five paragraph essay. The terms aren't synonyms. If you still don't understand what essay topics to write about, have a look at this thought-provoking list there are lots of suggestions to consider and choose. You can go on the internet and hunt for contemporary history thesis topics. The growth of society isn't possible to imagine without arts. Writers and essayists were affected by the Depression also. The criminal is penalized for all of the wrong doing and can likewise be imprisoned. Regardless of what genre you would like Business Studies, Microeconomics, Business Management and Financial Accounting, we're here to serve your requirements. Contemporary Essay Topics Can Be Fun for Everyone Besides being among the best film critics in the united states, Phillip Lopate is likewise an outstanding essay writer, who entertains the reader when provoking them to consider the matter i n question. The most important question that's being answered is whether the drama indicates a legitimate portrayal of working class. There are virtually no movies today which don't depict some kind of violence. Unfortunately, media today provides the impression this violence is normal. For example, it may seek out a global accord that will assist in preventing cyber war. Whichever way one turns, violence will be present to greet him. You are going to be surrounded by writing professionals throughout the plan of order placement, and the moment you choose to purchase essay and pick an allocated writer, things are likely to get even more exciting. Whether you must make a paper of one-of-a-kind flawlessness, just purchase an essay here and our writers will provide help. So should you need to employ college essay writer online, we're just the people that you will need to contact. As our group of writers is quite big, we always have free writers ready to bring a manageable and well-paid purchase.

Prelude and the extract from Cider with Rosie Essay Example For Students

Prelude and the extract from Cider with Rosie Essay Compare and contrast the presentation of a winter scene in Wordsworths extract from the Prelude and the extract from Cider with Rosie  The two extracts I am going to compare and write about are The Prelude and Cider with Rosie. The Prelude is written by William Wordsworth from before 1914 and is written in the style of poetry. Cider with Rosie is from 1959, it is in prose.  Before 1914 nature was an important part of life, it was seen as magical and very romantic. Wordsworth used many techniques and styles to make the reader feel this feeling of sublime. Cider with Rosie is very different, it was not written in a time when nature was sublime, it is written simply to recap a memory that the author (Laurie Lee) has. Laurie Lee (Cider with Rosie) uses a lot more imagery in his writing than Wordsworth does in his poem; it allows you to see what he is remembering. The opening line it was a world of glass, sparkling and motionless, is in the past tense and is quite effective as it makes the world sound very fragile and isolated. Later on in the 11/12th line he describes the pond Then we saw it; black and flat as a tray, the skaters rolling round it like marbles I believe it is quite sinister the way he portrays the pond, the word black gives a feeling of darkness quite different from the opening line. The second part of the sentence rolling round it like marbles gives a feeling of wildness, like the skaters cannot control themselves. But there is also that sense of Laurie feeling excited and uncontained, which is then passed onto the reader. On the lines 26/27/28 there is the sentence And you saw deep down little bubbles like cold green stars, jagged ominous rocks, dead ribbons of lilies, drowned bulrushes loaded like rockets. This sentence is very dark, different from all the other sentences around it for the next sentence goes on to say The frozen pond was a very treadmill of pleasure. This is unaccountably different to the sinister one just before it. I believe that this is to show that the children feel safer up above the ice and that although only a sheet of ice separates them, they are not worried. William Wordsworth uses a lot less imagery than Laurie Lee, but what he does use is powerful and well placed. For example The orange sky of the evening died away simple yet effective it is also a clever way of letting us know the sun is setting although we already know it is evening time from the 7th line The village clock tolld six. Nearer the end of the extract it gets a sense of darkness coming into it;  And all the shadowy banks on either side  Came sweeping through the darkness, spinning still  Have I, reclining back upon my heels,  Stopped short; yet still the solitary cliffs  Wheeled by me This is when Wordsworth is attempting to stop/slow down, and when he does finally stop he feels dizzy and the world is spinning around him, he describes this as sublime. It allows the reader to feel what he was feeling instead of seeing what he is seeing as you do in the Cider with Rosie extract.  Both extracts have a happy scene with a sense of foreboding nearer the end, but mainly they are joyful extracts. Cider with Rosie uses words such as sparkling or motionless to set the scene. Allowing the reader to feel isolated and captured by the scene. The Prelude uses words such as rapture or twilight to draw the reader in and allow them to find themselves as part of the setting. .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9 , .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9 .postImageUrl , .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9 , .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9:hover , .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9:visited , .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9:active { border:0!important; } .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9:active , .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9 .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u310f822cdb046002092079e18dde9cf9:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Poem from the Different Cultures Section EssayAnother way both authors have of invite readers into the story (for they are both stories) is by using sound to illustrate the scene better, to add little details.  Cider with Rosie does not use sound as much as The Prelude in the extract. Lines 6/7 have the section and kicked the water-butt to hear its solid sound this is showing how the people who are in the memory are children who are messing around before going to this certain place which the memory revolves around. It is an introduction into a memory, explaining the characters describing them a bit before the actual story comes into play. Later on in the 9/10/11th lines they actually get to the pond We could hear the pond as we ran down the hill, the shouts that only water produces, the squeal of skates, the ring of ice and its hollow heaving grumble. I find the last small bit to be rather sinister, hollow reminds the reader that it is only a sheet of ice separating the people from the water and heaving makes the reader wonder if the ice is straining under the weight.  The Prelude has a lot more sound involved in it, although not directly saying that there is a lot of sound it allows you to see that it is very noisy there. Lines 13-19 are just describing the noise: The Pack, loud bellowing  Ã‚  And not a voice was idle: with the din,  Meanwhile, the precipices rang aloud,  Ã‚  Tinkled like iron, while far distant hills  Into tumult sent an alien sound  It shows how loud and noisy it would have been and how they must be enjoying themselves. It is very up-beat and happy, sublime, the excitement is obvious and so the reader again is drawn into it.  The Prelude uses sound more than Cider with Rosie, which makes it harder to see the scene, but because the reader is more hearing the sounds that are there it feels more familiar and closer. Whereas Cider with Rosie is using imagery more than The Prelude which allows the reader to concentrate on what is happening and able to get a basic picture in their mind. Nearer the end of both extracts there is a sense darkness, in The Prelude this is because of the time it was written in, where magical senses and nature is sublime, to get the reader to that sense. With Cider with Rosie I think it is because it is getting darker and in childrens imaginations this is when bad things start to happen, it allows the reader to become a child with the piece of writing.

Your Product Description Template How to Write Converting Product Descriptions

If you want to run a successful e-commerce store, you have a lot of work to do. Youll need to design the store itself, drive traffic to it, and more. However, most importantly, you’ll have to convince visitors to actually convert. Knowing the right strategies and having a product description template, therefore, can come in handy.Once potential customers are on your website, its vital to do everything you can to convince them to make purchases. One of the best ways you can do this is by focusing on your product descriptions. By using the right formatting, language, keywords, and so on, you can create persuasive copy to encourage visitors to take the next step.In this post, we’ll explore several techniques for writing highly-converting product descriptions. Plus, we’ll share a product description template you can use to get started. Let’s take a look! To illustrate this point, let’s look at a few numbers from Salsifys report on digital consumer behav ior:87% of consumers feel that product descriptions are very or extremely important when making purchasing decisions.Detailed product descriptions is frequently rated in the top three influential factors (along with price and ratings/reviews).About 50% of customers have returned a product they purchased online that didn’t match its description.(Chart by Visualizer.)If you want to drive conversions on your e-commerce store, the key is to create detailed, accurate, and compelling descriptions (and if possible to use a product description template). Let’s talk about how to do so.Four tips for writing converting product descriptionsThe good news is that creating product descriptions to encourage sales isn’t difficult. All it takes is following a few basic guidelines. Below, we’ll take a look at the four most important strategies. After, we’ll provide you with a product description template you can use to get started.1. Provide detailed informationYouâ €™ll often hear about how internet users have short attention spans. This can make it tempting to include minimal information about each of your products, in the hopes of not scaring away potential customers. However, this approach can backfire.While people may indeed be impatient in some online situations, shopping isn’t one of them. 85% of online consumers conduct research before buying a product, and 87% are unlikely  to purchase from retailers that provide incomplete or inaccurate information.If you want to convince people to convert, therefore, you need to offer them all the details they’re looking for:This means:Providing the key facts about a product, such as size, color, material, and technical specifications.Highlighting all of the item’s features – what can it do, and how can it be used?Ensuring that everything on your product page is accurate.The more information a potential customer has about a particular product, the more confident they ’ll feel in hitting the â€Å"buy† button.2. Focus on the product’s benefitsWhile it’s important to provide lots of detailed information, this doesn’t mean your product descriptions have to be dry lists of facts. A product page should inform the consumer – but it should also be persuasive.This means you’ll want to create customer-centric product descriptions:People want to know whether what you’re offering can make their lives better. To do this, you can:Make the benefits of your product clear right away.Identify your target customers ‘pain points’ and respond to them. How will your product simplify a task, eliminate a frustration, or enable them to do something new?Don’t just guess what your customers want. Instead, do some research and create a detailed buyer persona.When putting your product descriptions together, you’ll want to front-load this information. Instead of starting by sharing the thread count for a set of bed sheets, explain how the customer will be able to enjoy a more restful night’s sleep. After selling them on the product’s key advantages, you can then get into the details.3. Use powerful wordsSo far, we’ve been talking about the content of your product descriptions. However, the ideas you share arent the entire story. The specific word choices you make matter just as much.Some words encourage people to buy, while others dont. If you want to sell more products, you’ll need to focus on using terminology that’s attention-grabbing, and persuasive:Some of the words you’ll want to incorporate  include:â€Å"You†. It’s important to talk about your product from the perspective of your customers. This way, you’ll make your product descriptions more personal.Sensory terms, such as â€Å"see†, â€Å"hear†, and â€Å"feel†. These words encourage your customers to imagine what it will be like to use your product.Positive ‘power words’, like â€Å"empower†, â€Å"effortless†, â€Å"striking†, and â€Å"delight†. These terms provoke emotions, grab attention, and make your descriptions stand out. Just be careful not to go overboard with these – and make sure your product can back up your claims.It’s also important that your product descriptions are written in an appropriate way for your audience. This means adopting a relevant tone and choice of words – whether youre lighthearted and funny, or professional and no-nonsense.4. Incorporate relevant keywordsOf course, we’d be remiss if we didn’t mention keywords. Incorporating keywords into your product descriptions has two primary benefits. First, it improves the Search Engine Optimization (SEO) of your product pages. About 69% of traffic to your e-commerce site is likely to come through Google, after all.In addition, keywords signal to potential customers that your product is relevant to their needs. If theyre searching for a particular term, and the same phrase appears in your product description, those customers can be more confident of the item matching what they’re looking for:To include keywords in your product descriptions, you’ll need to:Conduct keyword research, and identify phrases potential customers will use to search for products like yours.Select one or more primary keywords for each product (and be sure to include long-tail keywords).Keep these keywords at hand when writing your product description, and include them in multiple places throughout the text.To use keywords effectively, however, you’ll want to avoid over-stuffing your content with them. Its best to only include keywords when they’re relevant, and when they can be worked naturally into the text.A product description template to get you startedPutting these techniques into action can take some practice. To help you get s tarted, let’s check out a product description template you can use, based on the key tips we’ve discussed. Of course, feel free to tweak it as needed, to suit your store’s unique style and audience.Product title [Incorporate the primary product keyword.]Brief product description [1–3 sentences, in paragraph form. Explain the product’s benefits to the customer, and use powerful language.]Key Features:Feature #1 [Describe the feature and its advantages for the customer in 1–2 sentences. Include a primary or secondary keyword if relevant and natural.]Feature #2Feature #3Add as many features as neededProduct characteristics, variations, and specifications [This section will vary greatly depending on the product. Include as much detailed information as possible, and use lists and charts to make it easy to scan.]Call to Action [For example, a Buy Now  or Add to Cart  button. This should be clear and prominent.]Creating an effective product des cription doesn’t have to be hard. All it takes is incorporating the elements and strategies we’ve discussed, and keeping your ideal customer in mind at all times.How to increase your WooCommerce store’s sales even furtherThroughout this post, we’ve been talking about e-commerce stores in a general sense. Our advice and product description template can benefit your business no matter what platform you’re using.Of course, if you’re a WordPress user there’s a good chance your online shop is powered by WooCommerce. If so, we’d also encourage you to check out our own Revive Old Posts plugin: Revive Old Posts Auto Post to Social Media Author(s): revive.socialCurrent Version: 8.4.4Last Updated: October 3, 2019tweet-old-post.zip 78%Ratings 1,969,075Downloads WP 3.5+Requires This tool can be used effectively in combination with WooCommerce, in order to make your product descriptions more visible. By posting them to social media , you get them in front of more potential customers – thus maximizing their impact.You can even create multiple variations of your product descriptions and track which ones are most effective. This will enable you to create more highly-converting copy over time.Go to topConclusionThe goal of a successful product page is twofold. To start with, it needs to provide all the information consumers will need to make a purchasing decision. Plus, it should also be persuasive – making a strong case for buying the product through customer-focused copy and word choice.If you want to create highly-converting pages for your own store, you can use our product description template and remember to:Provide detailed information.Focus on the product’s benefits.Use powerful words.Incorporate relevant keywords.Do you have any questions about how to maximize sales in your e-commerce store, or how Revive Old Posts can help? Ask away in the comments section below! This product descript ion #template will have you writing high-converting #eCommerce copy in no time

Descriptive Essay My Greatest Influence Essays

Descriptive Essay My Greatest Influence Essays Descriptive Essay My Greatest Influence Essay Descriptive Essay My Greatest Influence Essay My girlfriend, Danielle Robinson has been a positive influence in my life since I’ve met her. She’s constantly watching me and making sure that I’m staying on top of things. I love how she’s always in my ear, motivating me to do better. She’s really matured me over the past two years. Since I’ve started dating her, a lot of things have changed. I don’t even party as much as I use to because of her. She helped me quit habits that I didn’t need to have. She’s everything that any guy would cherish. Danielle is about 5’9 with a lovely shape. She also has a beautiful smile to match. Her eyes are brown as like they’ve been dipped in honey. Danielle is not only someone who I can love but she’s someone who I can trust. You can always count on her to be there for you. She’s even there for me when I’m down on myself. I admire the sweet personality she beholds. She has love like no other that I could never grow old of.My girlfriend is also a character at times. She could make you laugh in many different ways. Being bored is never a problem when I’m around her. I should probably tell her to stop being goofy at times but who cares. My girlfriend’s real name is Kendrika Danielle Robinson. She doesn’t likes her first name, so she uses her middle name as her first name. It’s weird if you ask me but if that makes her happy then, so be it. I like to call her by Drika, that’s a cute nickname to me. She is attending college at Grambling State University, where I will attending in the fall. Danielle is from Rayville, Louisiana, just fifteen to twenty minutes away from where I live. I also admire the woman she is. She has never cheated on me in our relationship. Danielle is the first girlfriend I’ve had that never cheated on me. She’s a strong black woman that doesn’t cares what anyone else thinks.I see a woman that wants to works quite hard to be successful in life. Danielle is the type that won’t le

ITM 301 Mod 2 SLP - Principles of Information Systems in Business and Essay

ITM 301 Mod 2 SLP - Principles of Information Systems in Business and Organizations - Essay Example Likewise, for a person who just lands up in this website who is just willing to give a cursory look at the website can also get interest aroused. Hence, there is more possibility that the person may spend more time in the site. The look of the website is very appealing to the trained eye of an IT person with all the articles about the current IT issues. A cursory look at the range of articles that have been published is very impressive. Every link leads to a further probe into information in depth. The look of the site shows that it is a very loaded one with vast range of articles, blogs and links. For a person who is determined to find an article about a specific issue this site may be very useful. The apparent audience for the website will be the IT professionals, IT students and business managers. For the IT professionals and IT students this site is useful to keep updated about the latest developments and to get ideas with respect to the technological innovations. For the business managers this site is very useful to understand the effective use of technology to increase the efficiency of the various IT tools. For example the cover story for the August, 2008 issue is about whether to buy or build softw are applications1. This article is extremely useful and gives advisory tips for the managers to bring down the IT cost and at the improving the apparent benefits of software implementation. When I browsed this site, I found the IT white papers section very useful. To get a comprehensive idea about the topic of interest this section is indeed a great boon for researchers and business managers. The white papers provide valid data about the various issues and challenges in implementing and maintaining business management of technology. The links that I intended to follow are the news about the various projects. In that the disaster recovery is a very interesting area for me where I found many articles about the ways in which IT can be used in case of adversity.

Online discussion for Human Resources Management in Healthcare Essay - 1

Online discussion for Human Resources Management in Healthcare - Essay Example Hence, this shuns the manager from thinking of ever increasing the employees’ monetary rewards but result to other ways to retain the staff. Medical field owing to its dynamic nature, which keeps in pace with technological knowhow; mostly prompts practitioners into developing themselves in their respective careers. Therefore, the plan will be effective if it motivates medical practitioners in the firm to advance in their careers (Zipf & Engle, 2008). However, due to the firm’s limited budget, managers can organize internal training sessions where more experienced practitioners are able to share their knowhow especially with the juniors. To arouse this desire, the healthcare facility ought to create an environment where people are free to interact and even organize internal workshops for their juniors or the new recruits. Workers’ health is extremely essential despite them being the one who would work towards the wellness of the patients. Therefore, the management ought to ensure that, the healthcare facility has effective wellness initiatives meant for workers wellbeing. This does not imply management should strain the already limited budget, but introduce cheaper programs. These may encompass internal workouts days, campaigns against certain health predicaments (like obesity) besides organizing medical check ups for the practitioners. However, these initiatives should not turn to be an extra financial burden to the budget but should be within its limit. Employees usually feel appreciated and motivated especially if the organization’s management recognizes their exceptional contribution towards attaining its goals (Zipf & Engle, 2008). This is especially when they devise something new and uncommon in other organizations that will aid in raising their competitive advantage. This recognition plan may entail sometimes

Literature Review Of Load Shedding Methods

Literature Review Of Load Shedding Methods In chapter 1, a brief discussion about active distribution networks was presented. The importance of operation of islanded distribution networks was discussed. This chapter is intended to give the reader a better understanding of the load shedding methods currently applied and proposed over the years. However, it is assumed that the reader is familiar with basic power system engineering. In section 2.2, the area of probability of islanding and the need for load shedding is discussed. To achieve this objective, existing load shedding methods are reviewed to understand their working principle, requirements, advantages and limitations. The main categories identified are the following (i) Manual / SCADA Load Shedding (ii) Load Shedding using thresholds, (iii) Adaptive Load Shedding, (iv) Intelligent Load Shedding and (v) Load Shedding Based on Static Optimisation which are described and discussed in sections 2.2 through 2.7 respectively. Finally a summary is given in section 2.8 from which a new load shedding method for an islanded distribution network able to address the limitations of existing methods will be proposed. probability of islanding There is by now a considerable amount of literature on load shedding. That most of the literature however deals with large interconnected systems. For smaller systems when a loss of mains / grid event occurs the islanded distribution network have different operating characteristics and restrictions that require different load shedding guidelines. These are due to the low inertia of the distributed generators, the limited spinning reserve and limited communication systems [0] [0]. Load shedding is a practice used power system and serves as a function to try to arrest any frequency or voltage drop when a fault isolating part of the distribution network occurs. Faults in power systems are inevitable, for various reasons such as adverse weather conditions, ageing and failure of equipment, accident, and animal contact. In general, faults happen when an abnormal physical contact occurs between lines or on lines to earth that create a short-circuit path. If the system is not well protected, the high fault current due to the short-circuit path can cause damage to the equipment in the system. Faults also affect the reliability and quality of the power supply, leading to power interruption by frequency and voltage collapse and voltage sag events. Regardless of the interruption period, the losses are often enormous both to the customers and power utility companies. There are two types of fault, determined by the physical nature of the short-circuit path: temporary or permanent. Common causes of temporary faults on overhead lines are lightning strike resulting in a flashover of the insulator; bird or animal contact; and momentary contact due to wind or trees. Faults caused by these events exist for a very short period of time. On the other hand, a permanent fault remains in the system until the short-circuit path is removed. Common causes of permanent faults in power system networks are cable insulation failure, objects falling on the overhead lines, dirt on insulators and lines falling to the ground. When faults occur, a protection device operates to isolate the faulty line from the rest of the system (loss of mains / grid). The generators designated to provide voltage and frequency control will respond to control the island voltage and frequency. In order to achieve smooth transition to island operation, the generators must firstly ride through the fault or failure and secondly act to balance the active and reactive power in the islanded network. With a carefully designed load shedding method the operation of the islanded distribution network might be possible. It is important however that the design of the load shedding method is designed on the understanding of the characteristics of the system involved, including system topology and dynamic characteristics of its generation and load. A poorly design method may be ineffective and eventually lead to total customer interruption. Over the years, however, utility experience and extensive studies on a number of systems have resulted in different methods guidelines. In the following section, principles and guidelines for load shedding methods are reviewed. manual / SCada Load Shedding Manual or operator initiated load shedding [0] is not a reliable method to be used to avoid frequency deviation. However it can be used by some utilities to manually shed load or open ties (interconnectors) with adjacent areas at a frequencies below automatic underfrequency thresholds. This type of action might be necessary to prevent any further frequency deviation and to recover the frequency back to the nominal value. This load shedding scheme cannot be used for the islanded distribution network as it will be very slow as the frequency and voltage in the network will collapse within few seconds making it impossible for the operator to decide the correct defence action required for safe operation. automatic Load Shedding using thresholds An automatic load shedding for transmission system using different schemes such as underfrequency, undervoltage and combinations of the two can be employed to avoid frequency or voltage collapse during a significant imbalance between generation and load. These types of load shedding methods are very dependant on off line studies of the systems dynamic performance and only consider the greatest probable imbalance between generation and load. These methods have to be coordinated with the protections of the generating units, shunt capacitors and other automatic actions that occur in the system during frequency and voltage variations. Underfrequency load Shedding The underfrequency load shedding scheme as explained in the following papers [0] [0] uses relays detecting the systems frequency. These are designed to operate on the instantaneous frequency value where they trip when the frequency drops below the set point of the relay. The shedding is accomplished in the systems distribution or transmission stations where major load feeders can be controlled by tripping of the circuit breakers (CB) automatically. Different settings can be applied in these load shedding schemes. Multiple stages can be used in the scheme [0]. The substation loads can prioritised and grouped according to the importance of the load. The relays can be set to control one or more groups of loads and when there is a frequency drop these can be disconnected sequentially where the group with the highest probability being disconnected the last. Each group disconnected should contribute to the system rate of change of frequency decline. If the load to be disconnected is small compared to the overall imbalance then the contribution will be insignificant and would cause further problems to the systems frequency decline. Another setting usual for this type of scheme is the time delay [0]. The time may can be required and used usually to avoid any frequency transient dips that could arise in the system. The time delay also avoids unnecessary load shedding by allowing the load / frequency controls in the system to respond to the frequency deviation. However load shedding performed with long time delays should be set appropriately as it will make the system more vulnerable to system stability if eventually load shedding is required. This method will work adequate in a situation where the system frequency decline is slow. For example, as discussed in [0], in the UK as stated in the NationalGrids GridCode each transmission area has to disconnect a defined percentage of the peak Demand that each Network Operator whose system is connected to the GB Transmission System shall disconnect by low frequency relays at a range of frequencies. The defined frequencies and the amount of loads are given in Table 1 -1. Table 1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ1: Load Shedding Scheme employed in the UK Frequency (Hz) % Demand disconnection for each Network Operator in Transmission Area NGET SPT SHETL 48.8 5 48.75 5 48.7 10 48.6 7.5 10 48.5 7.5 10 48.4 7.5 10 10 48.3 48.2 7.5 10 10 48.0 5 10 10 47.8 5 Total % Demand 60 40 40 The percentages in Table 1 -1 are cumulative such that, for example, should the frequency fall to 48.6 Hz in the NGET Transmission Area, 27.5% of the total Demand connected to the GB Transmission System in the NGET Transmission Area shall be disconnected by the action of low frequency relays. A significant drawback of this method is that the systems frequency must be already be low before the relay can operate which can delay the load shedding action and the frequency recovery of the system. Additionally these types of schemes usually shed more than the required amount of load. Undervoltage load Shedding Undrevoltage load shedding method has been successfully deployed in transmission systems to protect them from voltage collapse [0] [0]. System studies are required to determine which systems are potential candidates for suitable the undervoltage load shedding method. This method is most useful in slow decaying systems where the undervoltage load shedding relay time relays can coordinated accordingly and operate to alleviate the system from overload conditions and low voltages. Voltage collapse can be studied using steady state simulations for the identified areas using a power flow analysis. System planning engineers conduct numerous studies using P-V and Q-V as well as other analytical methods to determine the amount of load required to be shed to preserve voltage stability under different disturbances. Dynamic simulations can then determine the speed of the collapse and load shedding settings. An example as discussed in [0] in the US in the Puget Sound area, which is prone to voltage collapse has been studied. The voltage trip thresholds were determined from the results of steady state simulations of worst contingencies. The time delays for the relays were coordinated to address control actions of the automatic capacitor switching, generator limits, on load tap changing transformer using dynamic simulations. Table 1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ2: Load Shedding Scheme employed in the US Voltage (pu) Time delay (s) % Demand disconnection for Network Operator in Transmission Area 0.90 3.5 5 0.92 5.0 5 0.92 8.0 5 When the monitored bus voltages fall to 0.90 pu or lower for a minimum of 3.5 s then 5% of the load is disconnected. Additionally another 5% of load disconnection should occur when the voltage falls to 0.92 pu or lower for 5.0 s. There limitation associated with proper application of undervoltage load shedding is the location of its application.to where the relaying may be appropriately applied. If it is placed on a distribution line the effects of auto tap changers mask a system overload condition from the relay, or alternatively a line switching operation or the startup of a large industrial plant on one feeder could fool the relay. The relay would not be appropriate at locations directly adjacent to generation powerful enough to control bus voltages even during severe overloads. The relay is best applied to locations with fairly stiff voltages under all normal conditions, so a low voltage condition will reliably indicate a severe overload condition, as may be assumed to be the case at large substations associated with bulk power transmission lines and therefore this method cannot be effectively applied in islanded distribution networks where DG unit power and load demand varies. combination load Shedding In order to increase the security of the above discussed methods for underfrequency load shedding the relay could be set up to supervise the voltage, the current or the rate of change of frequency. According to their combined settings, the relay could either be blocked or initiate tripping of the CB to avoid any misoperations. One combination load shedding scheme is to use an underfrequency load shedding relay with voltage supervision. Basically the operation procedure of load shedding is blocked from operating unless the voltage is below a given threshold. The underfrequency relay will be able to trip the CB as long as the bus voltage it is monitoring is lower than a set point. Another combination is to use current supervision instead of the voltage. The purpose of the current supervision is to select which feeders to trip. This can achieved by monitoring which feeders are loaded above a certain point and then the relay will initiate the load shedding signal. An alternative is to use the rate of change of frequency for supervision [0] [0]. During a disturbance the supervision of the rate of change of frequency can block the tripping for very fast frequency changes but would allow for typical frequency decay rates. Also instead of measuring the instantaneous rate of change of frequency supervision is to use the frequency change trend. In other words by monitoring the average rate of frequency change will provide a more secure decision for tripping during disturbances. The load shedding decision of the scheme is made by monitoring the frequency change over a specified amount of time usually few hundred milli seconds. Therefore making the operation of the relay slower than the ones employing the rate of change of frequency. automatic ADAPTIve Load Shedding Adaptive control involves updating the amount of load to shed used by the method to cope with the fact that the conditions such as the power imbalance between generation and load of the system are time-varying or uncertain. It is important in these circumstances to minimise consumer disruption through proper design of the load shedding arrangements. An adaptive load shedding, is based on the relays reacting to a disturbance either by being instructed the amount to shed or by having certain defined criteria based on the rate of change of frequency. Anderson and Mirteydar in [0] present an adaptive methodology for setting of underfrequency relays that is based on the initial rate of change of frequency at the relay. The frequency performance of the islanded is represented by a linear system frequency response as shown in Figure 1 -1 and presented in more detail in the literature in [0]. Figure 1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ1: Simplified frequency response with disturbance input where: H = inertia constant (s) FH = fraction of total power generated by HP turbine TR = reheat time constant (s) Km = mechanical power gain factor R = droop characteristic (pu) D = damping factor Clearly the only observed quantity that gives any clue as to the size of the disturbance is the initial slope of frequency decline. The use of the initial slope to estimate the magnitude of the disturbance requires that every substation in the island will observe slightly different slopes and will therefore shed load based on different estimates of the disturbance. However on average the system as a whole will shed approximately the correct amount of load. To set the parameters for the relays as explained they are based on a simulation of the frequency response for the system. In the example given (H = 3.5 s, FH = 0.3, TR = 8.0 s, Km = 0.85, R = 0.06 and D = 1) the evaluation of the frequency and its slope against different amounts of disturbances are given in Table 1 -3. Table 1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ3: Initial Slope and Maximum Deviation vs Upset (frequency nominal 60 Hz) Pstep df/df ΆÃƒ Ã¢â‚¬ °max fmin pu pu/s Hz/s Hz Hz -0.2 -0.0286 -1.7143 -1.6438 58.356 -0.3648 -0.0521 -3.1260 -3.0000 57.000 -0.4 -0.0571 -3.4286 -3.2876 56.712 -0.6 -0.0857 -5.1429 -4.9313 55.069 -0.8 -0.1143 -6.8571 -6.5751 53.425 -1.0 -0.1429 -8.5714 -8.2189 51.781 The lowest frequency permitted in the system is 57 Hz from the nominal 60 Hz. Therefore when a magnitude greater than -0.0521 pu/s is observed load shedding must be triggered. This method relies on the fact that the amount of load shedding is a function of only the inertia constant and the observed slope. The inertia constant is the rotating kinetic energy of all units in the island divided by the total connected volt ampere rating of the units. This parameter has to be estimated. Therefore, the initial slope is the only unknown. The load shedding amount is computed in per unit, which makes it easy to apply to every load and to every load shedding relay. A positive is that communication is not required between relays and the boundaries of the island are not required to be known. However the drawbacks are that if it is applied for the islanding application of islanded networks this might not be possible as the method needs good estimates of the inertia of the system D, R, TR, Km and FH. This can significantly change with the varying DG units and loads in the distribution network. Another adaptive load shedding method presented by Terzija in [0] uses similarly as the previous method a variation of the typical swing equation. Due to the dynamic responses of turbines, governors, other control actions, spinning reserve, loads are not taken in account in the calculation of the required amount of load to be shed as given in . Where H is the inertia constants and assumed to be known in advance to the disturbance. The adaptive approach is based on real time estimation of fc (frequency of equivalent inertial centre) which is proposed to be calculated centrally by measuring the local frequencies at each generator. The proposed method assumes that the time constants in the power system are large and with modern communication this method would be possible for big power systems. However in distribution networks communication is believed not to change drastically in the near future making this application difficult to implement. This is because the estimation and control information are evaluated after the disturbance occurred. Van Cutsem and Otomega proposed a method in [0] which relies on a set of load shedding controllers distributed over the region susceptible to voltage instability. Each controller monitors the bus voltage and act on a set of loads located at that bus. Each controller acts when its monitored voltage falls below some threshold and trips at different time according the severity of the drop. The action can be repeated until the voltage is above the threshold voltage. The principle of operation of the controller is described as follows. The delay à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ depends on the time evolution of V as follows. A block of load is shed at a time t0 + à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ such that: where C is a constant to be adjusted. This control law yields an inverse-time characteristic: the deeper the voltage drops, the less time it takes to reach the value C and, hence, the faster the shedding. The larger C, the more time it takes for the integral to reach this value and hence, the slower the action. Furthermore, the delay is lower bounded: to prevent the controller from reacting on a nearby fault. Indeed, in normal situations time must be left for the protections to clear the fault and the voltage to recover to normal values. Similarly, the amount ΆPsh of power shed at time t0 + à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ depends on the time evolution of V through where K is another constant to be adjusted, and ΆVav is the average voltage drop over the [t0, t0 + à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾]interval, i.e., Moreover, the whole system will tend to shed first where voltages drop the most. This location changes with the disturbance. Hence, the proposed scheme automatically adjusts the shedding location to the disturbance it faces. Note that the above features are achieved without resorting to a dedicated communication network. The controllers do not exchange information, but are rather informed of their respective actions through the power system itself. The drawback for this method for distribution network is that the tuning which consists of choosing the best values for Vth, C and K. A C and K combination suitable can be identified by minimising the total load shedding over all disturbance scenarios. Clearly this method would shed more loads for some scenarios. An additional concern is that the dynamic performance of the DG units and loads is not taken in account when performing load shedding if applied to the islanded distribution network and by trying to shed in steps the frequency drop in the network might drop significantly. automatic Intelligent Load Shedding Applications of intelligent load shedding in power system engineering (e.g. genetic algorithms, artificial neural networks, MonteCarlo etc.) have been demonstrated in [0] [0]. The characteristics which are inherent to intelligent methods, such as the ability to learn and generalization make it feasible for applications such as load shedding. You et al. in [0] discuss of a method that uses the rate of change of frequency to load shed. The method uses the same approach to calculate the required amount of load as in [0] and at the same time, the conventional load shedding method with undefrequency thresholds is incorporated to form a new two level load shedding method. The conventional load shedding method has longer time delays and lower frequency thresholds which can be used to prevent unnecessary load shedding in response to small disturbances. If the disturbance is large, the second layer will be activated and a block signal to the first layer is enabled. The second layer based on the rate of change of frequency load shedding will shed more load quickly at the early stage of the disturbance. Similarly as to paper [0], this method will have the same limitations when applied to the islanded distribution network. In the paper [0] which follows this study, the explanation of the selection of the settings for the relays is discussed. Agent technology is to try to assure that the method will withstand all possible disturbances. Traditionally after a major disturbance, the system is revisited and settings of devices and control actions are changed so that the system will withstand the same disturbance in the future. This however due to analysis of the system significant time and cost will be required. For the autonomous and adaptive learning capability for the agents, the reinforcement learning technique is used. Reinforcement learning is learning by interaction. The agent tries actions on its environment and then, the tendencies of taking particular actions are reinforced by receiving scalar evaluations of its actions. Thus determining the amount of load to be shed required to avoid collapse. The paper does not discuss whether the technique is applied online or offline through simulation. Clearly for the online this would not be ideal as it will take a lot of number of failures until the agents are properly set for that particular disturbance. For the offline simulation a concern is that for islanded distribution networks the topology, DG unit power and load demand will change thus making the decision of the action of the agents is difficult to train. Another concern is communication between agents. Fast communication would be required for coordinated decisions. Another approach to load shedding is the use of fuzzy expert system and is described in [0]. In this paper Sallam and Khafaga described a method to control the voltage instability by load shedding using fuzzy technique as fuzzy controller. The operation of the method relies on the experts knowledge which is expressed by language containing ambiguous or fuzzy description. The aim of this study is to design and analyse a fuzzy controller for the study to control against load and voltage instability by calculating the optimum load shedding as output. Similarly in [0] the authors propose genetic algorithms for the optimum selection of load shedding. These techniques search and optimise the amount of load shedding using objectives and constrains required for a practical load shedding method. Also in [0] the authors introduce another technique using the artificial neural networks is presented. To prepare the training data set for the artificial neural network, transient stability analysis of the power system is required and to find the minimum load shedding for various scenarios. By selecting the total power generation, total load demand and frequency decay rate as the input neurons for the method, the minimum of load shedding is determined to maintain the stability of the power system. In paper [0] Thalassinakis and Dialynas introduce a computational method using MonteCarlo simulation approach for the calculation of the settings of the underfrequency load shedding relays is discussed. The frequency performance as previously discussed in section 1.5 is used here as well. The strategy for the relay settings will be determined against amount of load to shed, time delay, rate of change of frequency and underfrequency level. A new strategy is developed by changing these settings. The MonteCarlo then computes the system through reliability indices of generating units, the system frequency and load shedding indices. load shedding based on static optimisation The first theory of applying load shedding using an on line dynamic simulation of the power system network was introduced by La Scala et al. [0]. Followed by an improvement of the method combing a control action to ensure angle and voltage stability enhancement in [0]. The first paper that introduced the same concept applied for large power systems to the smaller distribution network is described in [0] by Nelson and Aponte. A more recent study using similar technique is also presented in [0]. The paper presented in [0] describes the philosophy and the implementation of a preventive load shedding control algorithm for the application in dynamic security assessment. The methodology is based on nonlinear programming techniques, for assessing control actions to guarantee the dynamic security of power systems. The basic idea is that the online dynamic preventive control can be seen as a static optimisation problem with minimising function and equality and inequality constrains. The equality constrains consist in the discretisation at each time step of the differential algebraic set of equations representing the power system. The inequality constrains define a domain where the system trajectories should be contained in order to satisfy the requirements for the system performance stability and steady state voltage dips. In [0] the formulation includes corrective actions based on load shedding. The proposed method assumes that the analysis is performed to detect particular disturbances threatening the dynamic security of the system. The analysis is based suing the n-1 rule which is performed in advanced and applying the results immediately after the detected contingency. Each analysis has its associated strategies consisting with the corresponding amount of load to be shed at a fixed number of controlled nodes. The optimisation however is evaluated based on the steady state values of angle, voltage and active power (generator and load). Load shedding based on static optimisation performs load flow to calculate the initial P, V for all the nodes in the system. Then the method performs a transient simulation assessment to ensure the system is stable against angle and voltage. Followed by an approach to the minimisation of a function in presence of equality and inequality constrains consist in incorpora ting the inequalities in the cost function by adopting the penalty factor method and treating the whole problem as a minimisation in presence of the sole equality constrains by the use of Lagrange multipliers. This method has been used for synchronous generators in transmission systems. However in distribution networks because of the diversity of the generators and their ride through capability this approach could result in conditions where optimised solutions do not meet the requirements as shown in Figure 1 -2 [0]. Figure 1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ2: Ride through capability of Generating Unit, DC Converter or Power Park Modules. Explanation of graph required. Each Generating Unit, DC Converter or Power Park Module shall remain transiently stable and connected to the system without tripping. However for small generating units connected in the distribution network their transient behaviour could be as shown in Figure 1 -2 b and c where local protection and circuit breaker operation of generators or sensitive equipment will be disconnected after such a response. Similar to the voltage is for the frequency range. Therefore the load flow with corrective control for angle and voltage stability approach for the load shedding optimisation is not appropriate for distribution networks. In [0] and [0] describe of a method implemented in distribution networks where not only the amount of load shedding is optimised but also the time for the disconnection. The current trend is to apply the corrective measures as soon as possible or delayed for the sake of event discrimination. The study and results however show that when the corrective action is applied at the optimal time increased damping and enhanced response are observed. summary The use of load shedding as a tool to keep the network stable has been constantly evolving, and different approaches have been formulated. Relaying schemes like underfrequency and ROCOF [0] [0] are some examples of the mechanisms implemented to trigger a load shedding event. Typical load shedding schemes based on predefined threshold set points is quick, simple and reliable measure against system disturbance. When the frequency of the system reaches a specified threshold value, a time delay is inserted prior to the shedding action in order to avoid overshedding and assist the coordination of the next stage of load shedding action. This technique however when adopted for the islanded operation of small distribution networks would have several disadvantages. Too few frequency levels could lead to overshedding, but on the other hand, time delays between stages could add up and may not allow for enough load to be shed in time to re-establish nominal frequency. The implementation of ROCOF techniques mitigates some of these problems. The ROCOF value calculation is an immediate indicator of the power imbalance; but for the distribution network the variation of the DG units operation would make this measurement unreliable. Also the average ROCOF calculation may take too long and eventually make the load shedding method slow in operation. Even if accurate measure of the islanded distribution network ROCOF valu